Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has emerged as a pivotal non-invasive technique for investigating cortical excitability and plasticity across the lifespan, offering valuable insights into neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative processes. In this review, we explore the impact of TMS applications on our understanding of normal development, healthy aging, neurodevelopmental disorders, and adult-onset neurodegenerative diseases. By presenting key developmental milestones and age-related changes in TMS measures, we provide a foundation for understanding the maturation of neurotransmitter systems and the trajectory of cognitive functions throughout the lifespan. Building on this foundation, the paper delves into the pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette’s syndrome and adolescent depression. Highlighting recent findings on altered neurotransmitter circuits and dysfunctional cortical plasticity, the paper underscores the potential of TMS as a valuable tool for unraveling underlying mechanisms and informing future therapeutic interventions. We also review the emerging role of TMS in investigating and treating the most common adult-onset neurodegenerative disorders and late-onset depression. By outlining the therapeutic applications of NIBS techniques in these disorders, we discuss the growing body of evidence supporting their use as therapeutic tools for symptom management and potentially slowing disease progression. The insights gained from TMS studies have advanced our understanding of the underlying mechanisms in both healthy and diseased states, ultimately informing the development of more targeted diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for a wide range of neuropsychiatric conditions.
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